Political-religious background to the Holy Roman Empire
With the transfer of the imperial seat from Rome to Constantinople (May 11th, 330) and the subsequent disintegration of the Western Empire by the barbarians (476), along with the rapid Christianization of the new Germanic populations—through which they assimilated Latin culture—the papacy, heir to Latin heritage, organization, and imperial culture, became the focal point of the nascent Western world. The connection to Rome was based on two main ideas: one religious-ecclesiastical and the other religious-political.
Regarding the first, it should be noted that in late antiquity, the Latinity of the Church and the West was centered in North Africa, which was the birthplace of great martyrs, theologians, and apologists. However, with the Islamic conquest of North Africa, it was lost to the Western world, which found its natural point of reference in the Church of Rome and the papacy.
These religious ties with Rome were particularly established and strengthened by the Anglo-Saxon monk Boniface.
The entire Catholic Europe, therefore, looked to Rome as the reference point for its Christian identity in which all recognized themselves.
It was not, of course, a legal dependency, but a moral one, and we will see how, in the High Middle Ages under Innocent III, a legal assertion was also initiated.
As for the second idea, it would be affirmed with Charlemagne in the attempt to revive the Roman Empire, whose intent was to unite the entire West under a single political and religious leadership. Thus, the Augustinian dream of the “Civitas Dei,” the Kingdom of God on earth, was realized.
Formation of the Papal States
As long as the Roman Empire served as a unifying force for the peoples, the Church had no need for material power as it was supported by the Empire. However, when the Empire began to crumble, the Church fragmented into various local churches. This led to the need for the pope’s political autonomy to defend spiritual independence.
During the time of Gregory I (590-604), thanks to the “Justinian Code,” the popes already held power over Rome, and bishops were recognized as public figures.
Two events strengthened the papacy during Gregory I’s time:
- The possession of large tracts of land, received as donations (the so-called “Patrimonium Petri”).
- The papal governance acting as a substitute for the exarch of Ravenna, who was unable to manage his power. The popes soon became the true masters of Rome.
The Roman Church and the Franks
The birth of the Christian West found its original nucleus in the relations between the Frankish Kingdom and the Church. With Clovis, a first concentration of lordships was established over a vast area, but it was under the Carolingians that power was consolidated under a single ruler. By 680, they were already mayors of the palace under the Merovingians and concentrated significant power in the region of the Meuse and Rhine. The victory of Charles Martel at Poitiers in 732 against the Arabs strengthened the Carolingian position, making it easy for Pippin the Short to depose the last Merovingian, Childeric III, and have himself proclaimed king by the greats of the kingdom and consecrated by Frankish bishops.
Thus, the Frankish kingdom was being formed, leading among European powers and becoming champions of Christianity for halting the Arab advance at Poitiers. It was to them that Gregory III (731-741) turned around 739-740 to oppose the Lombards, submission to whom would have reduced the popes to mere territorial bishops under their control.
This move by Gregory III was historically significant as it indicated the new direction of the Western Church: a first step that would detach it definitively from the East, creating its own empire in the West. The decisive date of this separation can ideally be marked as 741, when the figures of Gregory II, replaced by Pope Zacharias for the Church; Charles Martel, replaced by his sons Carloman and Pippin III for the Franks; and Leo III, succeeded by his son Constantine V for the Eastern Empire, disappeared almost simultaneously. Carloman withdrew from the political scene, leaving the position to his brother Pippin III, who turned to Pope Zacharias for reassurance on the legality of his ascent to the Frankish throne. Zacharias pragmatically resolved the matter by asserting that it was better to call king the one who actually held power rather than the one who had been stripped of authority.
Pippin was thus elected king and anointed. This anointing, inspired by that of Saul and David, took on a sacred and religious character and developed a sacramental theology of anointing. This consecratory anointing legitimized the involvement of kings in Church affairs and vice versa. Thus, a profound union between temporal and spiritual power was forming to the point that Innocent III (1202) declared that only he had the right to examine who had been elected king. The king, therefore, became a theocratic sovereign and could govern the Church, which, incorporated into the Kingdom, reserved the right to approve the king’s election.
After the death of the Lombard Liutprand (744), King Aistulf resumed expansionist policies and advanced to Rome with the intention of making it the capital of Italy. Pope Stephen II (752-757), having asked Emperor Constantine V for help in vain as he was preoccupied with the iconoclastic controversy, turned to Pippin III, who not only promised assistance but also the return of the Exarchate of Ravenna.
Pippin III’s prompt acceptance of the invitation concealed his ambition to extend his influence in Italy and annex the Lombards to the Frankish kingdom.
After an initial failed attempt at the diet of Bernacum, which ended inconclusively, Pippin III secured approval for papal assistance with the diet of Quierzy and promised vast Italian territories to the pope.
Thus, after a failed diplomatic attempt to persuade King Aistulf to return the land to the pope, Pippin III, through two military campaigns, repeatedly defeated Aistulf, who was forced to cede a third of his treasure and vast lands to the pope. This donation by Pippin marked the birth of the Papal States. The formation of the Papal States immediately triggered a power struggle, and upon the death of Pope Paul I, brother of Stephen II, various nobles and noble factions placed Constantine, who ruled for a year, and then Philip, who was deposed after a few months, on the papal throne. Finally, Stephen III (768-772) was duly elected.
These incidents highlighted the need for regulations for papal elections, which gradually evolved over the centuries, leading to the two-thirds requirement of the cardinal assembly (1179).
Under Adrian I, the Church began to mint its own currency and date diplomas according to the years of the pontificate. The final break from Constantinople would come with Charlemagne and the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Donation of Constantine
To cement greater autonomy and power for the Papal States, the most famous forgery in history appeared: the “Donation of Constantine” or “Constitutum Constantini.” It likely emerged under Pope Stephen II (750) and consists of two parts: a “Confessio” in which Constantine professes his faith and recounts how he was miraculously cured of leprosy by Pope Sylvester; and the “Donatio,” where Constantine, before departing for Constantinople, recognized the supremacy of the bishop of Rome over the patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Constantinople. The pope was also granted the regalia of “basileus,” including the purple mantle, scepter, and mounted escort, which conferred temporal power over the Western Empire and independence from the Eastern one. The clergy were equated with the Senate and authorized to adorn their mounts with white trappings; the emperor personally deposited the act of donation on the tomb of St. Peter. The complete text of the “Donation” appeared for the first time around the mid-9th century in the “Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals,” another medieval forgery, and was long regarded as authentic. It was only in the 15th century that humanists like Nicholas of Cusa and Lorenzo Valla proved its falsehood. However, the exact time, place, and purpose of this forgery remain unclear. It was likely created within papal circles to justify Rome’s independence from Byzantium and the founding of a Papal State.